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What Are Animal Like Protists Informally Called

Written By Tuesday, May 24, 2022 Add Comment Edit

Eukaryotic organisms that are neither animals, plants nor fungi

Protist

Temporal range:

Paleoproterozoic[a] – Nowadays

Pha.

Proterozoic

Archean

Had'n

Protist collage 2.jpg
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Groups included

Supergroups[1] and typical phyla

  • Archaeplastida (in function)
    • Rhodophyta (red algae)
    • Glaucophyta
  • SAR
    • Stramenopiles (brown algae, diatoms, oomycetes, ...)
    • Alveolata
      • Apicomplexa
      • Ciliophora
      • Dinoflagellata
    • Rhizaria
      • Cercozoa
      • Foraminifera
      • Radiolaria
  • Excavata
    • Euglenozoa
    • Percolozoa
    • Metamonada
  • Amoebozoa
  • Hacrobia
  • Hemimastigophora
  • Apusozoa
  • Opisthokonta (in part)
    • Choanozoa

Many others;
classification varies

Cladistically included simply traditionally excluded taxa
  • Animalia
  • Fungi
  • Plantae

A protist () is any eukaryotic organism (that is, an organism whose cells contain a jail cell nucleus) that is not an animal, plant, or mucus. While it is likely that protists share a common ancestor (the last eukaryotic common ancestor),[two] the exclusion of other eukaryotes ways that protists do non form a natural group, or clade.[a] Therefore, some protists may be more than closely related to animals, plants, or fungi than they are to other protists; even so, like the groups algae, invertebrates, and protozoans, the biological category protist is used for convenience. Others allocate any unicellular eukaryotic microorganism as a protist.[3] The study of protists is termed protistology.[4]

History [edit]

The classification of a 3rd kingdom separate from animals and plants was first proposed by John Hogg in 1860 as the kingdom Protoctista; in 1866 Ernst Haeckel also proposed a 3rd kingdom Protista as "the kingdom of primitive forms".[5] Originally these also included prokaryotes, just with fourth dimension[ when? ] these were removed to a fourth kingdom Monera.[b]

In the popular five-kingdom scheme proposed by Robert Whittaker in 1969, Protista was defined as eukaryotic "organisms which are unicellular or unicellular-colonial and which grade no tissues", and the fifth kingdom Fungi was established.[six] [7] [c] In the five-kingdom system of Lynn Margulis, the term protist is reserved for microscopic organisms, while the more inclusive kingdom Protoctista (or protoctists) included certain large multicellular eukaryotes, such as kelp, red algae, and slime molds.[ten] Some use the term protist interchangeably with Margulis's protoctist, to encompass both unmarried-celled and multicellular eukaryotes, including those that form specialized tissues merely do not fit into any of the other traditional kingdoms.[11]

Description [edit]

Too their relatively elementary levels of system, protists exercise not necessarily have much in common.[12] When used, the term "protists" is now considered to mean a paraphyletic aggregation of similar-appearing merely diverse taxa (biological groups); these taxa do not take an sectional common antecedent across beingness composed of eukaryotes, and accept unlike life cycles, trophic levels, modes of locomotion, and cellular structures.[thirteen] [fourteen]

Examples of protists include:[xv]

  • Amoebas (including nucleariids and Foraminifera);
  • choanaflagellates; ciliates;
  • Diatoms;
  • Dinoflagellates;
  • Giardia;
  • Plasmodium (which causes malaria);
  • Oomycetes (including Phytophthora, the crusade of the Slap-up Famine of Ireland); and
  • slime molds.

These examples are unicellular, although oomycetes can bring together to course filaments, and slime molds tin can aggregate into a tissue-similar mass.

In cladistic systems (classifications based on common ancestry), at that place are no equivalents to the taxa Protista or Protoctista, as both terms refer to a paraphyletic grouping that spans the entire eukaryotic co-operative of the tree of life. In cladistic classification, the contents of Protista are mostly distributed among diverse supergroups: examples include the

  • SAR supergroup (of stramenopiles or heterokonts, alveolates, and Rhizaria);
  • Archaeplastida (or Plantae sensu lato);
  • Excavata (which is mostly unicellular flagellates); and
  • Opisthokonta (which commonly includes unicellular flagellates, but also animals and fungi).

"Protista", "Protoctista", and "Protozoa" are therefore considered obsolete. However, the term "protist" continues to exist used informally as a catch-all term for eukaryotic organisms that are not within other traditional kingdoms. For example, the word "protist pathogen" may be used to announce any disease-causing organism that is not constitute, animal, fungal, prokaryotic, viral, or subviral.[16]

Subdivisions [edit]

The term Protista was showtime used by Ernst Haeckel in 1866. Protists were traditionally subdivided into several groups based on similarities to the "higher" kingdoms such every bit:[five]

Protozoa
Protozoans are unicellular "animal-like" (heterotrophic, and sometimes parasitic) organisms that are further sub-divided based on characteristics such as motion, such as the (flagellated) Flagellata, the (ciliated) Ciliophora, the (phagocytic) amoeba, and the (spore-forming) Sporozoa.
Protophyta
Protophyta are "plant-like" (autotrophic) organisms that are composed more often than not of unicellular algae. The dinoflagellates, diatoms and Euglena-like flagellates are photosynthetic protists.
Mold
Molds generally refer to fungi; simply slime molds and water molds are "fungus-like" (saprophytic) protists, although some are pathogens. Two separate types of slime molds be, the cellular and acellular forms.

Some protists, sometimes chosen ambiregnal protists, have been considered to exist both protozoa and algae or fungi (due east.one thousand., slime molds and flagellated algae), and names for these have been published nether either or both of the ICN and the ICZN.[17] [18] Conflicts, such as these – for example the dual-classification of Euglenids and Dinobryons, which are mixotrophic – is an example of why the kingdom Protista was adopted.

These traditional subdivisions, largely based on superficial commonalities, have been replaced by classifications based on phylogenetics (evolutionary relatedness among organisms). Molecular analyses in modern taxonomy have been used to redistribute former members of this group into diverse and sometimes distantly related phyla. For case, the water molds are now considered to exist closely related to photosynthetic organisms such every bit Brown algae and Diatoms, the slime molds are grouped mainly nether Amoebozoa, and the Amoebozoa itself includes but a subset of the "Amoeba" grouping, and significant number of former "Amoeboid" genera are distributed amongst Rhizarians and other Phyla.

Nevertheless, the older terms are yet used as breezy names to describe the morphology and ecology of diverse protists. For example, the term protozoa is used to refer to heterotrophic species of protists that do non grade filaments.

Nomenclature [edit]

Historical classifications [edit]

Amid the pioneers in the written report of the protists, which were almost ignored by Linnaeus except for some genera (e.g., Vorticella, Chaos, Volvox, Corallina, Conferva, Ulva, Chara, Fucus)[19] [xx] were Leeuwenhoek, O. F. Müller, C. G. Ehrenberg and Félix Dujardin.[21] The get-go groups used to classify microscopic organism were the Animalcules and the Infusoria.[22] In 1818, the High german naturalist Georg August Goldfuss introduced the word Protozoa to refer to organisms such every bit ciliates and corals.[23] [5] Subsequently the cell theory of Schwann and Schleiden (1838–39), this group was modified in 1848 by Carl von Siebold to include merely animal-similar unicellular organisms, such every bit foraminifera and amoebae.[24] The formal taxonomic category Protoctista was outset proposed in the early 1860s by John Hogg, who argued that the protists should include what he saw as archaic unicellular forms of both plants and animals. He defined the Protoctista as a "fourth kingdom of nature", in addition to the then-traditional kingdoms of plants, animals and minerals.[25] [five] The kingdom of minerals was later removed from taxonomy in 1866 by Ernst Haeckel, leaving plants, animals, and the protists (Protista), defined as a "kingdom of primitive forms".[26] [27]

In 1938, Herbert Copeland resurrected Hogg'southward label, arguing that Haeckel'south term Protista included anucleated microbes such equally bacteria, which the term "Protoctista" (literally pregnant "commencement established beings") did non. In contrast, Copeland's term included nucleated eukaryotes such as diatoms, light-green algae and fungi.[28] This nomenclature was the basis for Whittaker's later definition of Fungi, Animalia, Plantae and Protista as the four kingdoms of life.[viii] The kingdom Protista was later modified to separate prokaryotes into the dissever kingdom of Monera, leaving the protists as a group of eukaryotic microorganisms.[6] These v kingdoms remained the accepted nomenclature until the development of molecular phylogenetics in the belatedly 20th century, when it became apparent that neither protists nor monera were single groups of related organisms (they were not monophyletic groups).[29]

Modern classifications [edit]

Phylogenetic and symbiogenetic tree of living organisms, showing the origins of eukaryotes

Systematists today do non care for Protista every bit a formal taxon, simply the term "protist" is all the same commonly used for convenience in ii ways.[30] The most popular gimmicky definition is a phylogenetic one, that identifies a paraphyletic grouping:[31] a protist is whatsoever eukaryote that is not an beast, (land) plant, or (true) fungus; this definition[32] excludes many unicellular groups, like the Microsporidia (fungi), many Chytridiomycetes (fungi), and yeasts (fungi), and also a non-unicellular grouping included in Protista in the past, the Myxozoa (animal).[33] Some systematists[ who? ] judge paraphyletic taxa acceptable, and utilise Protista in this sense as a formal taxon (as plant in some secondary textbooks, for pedagogical purpose).[ citation needed ]

The other definition describes protists primarily by functional or biological criteria: protists are essentially those eukaryotes that are never multicellular,[xxx] that either exist as independent cells, or if they occur in colonies, practice non prove differentiation into tissues (just vegetative cell differentiation may occur restricted to sexual reproduction, alternate vegetative morphology, and quiescent or resistant stages, such as cysts);[34] this definition excludes many brown, multicellular cherry-red and green algae, which may accept tissues.

The taxonomy of protists is still changing. Newer classifications endeavor to present monophyletic groups based on morphological (specially ultrastructural),[35] [36] [37] biochemical (chemotaxonomy)[38] [39] and Deoxyribonucleic acid sequence (molecular enquiry) information.[40] [41] However, in that location are sometimes discordances betwixt molecular and morphological investigations; these can exist categorized as 2 types: (i) one morphology, multiple lineages (east.g. morphological convergence, cryptic species) and (2) one lineage, multiple morphologies (due east.k. phenotypic plasticity, multiple life-cycle stages).[42]

Because the protists as a whole are paraphyletic, new systems oft carve up or abandon the kingdom, instead treating the protist groups as separate lines of eukaryotes. The contempo scheme by Adl et al. (2005)[34] does not recognize formal ranks (phylum, class, etc.) and instead treats groups every bit clades of phylogenetically related organisms. This is intended to brand the nomenclature more stable in the long term and easier to update. Some of the main groups of protists, which may be treated as phyla, are listed in the taxobox, upper correct.[43] Many are thought to be monophyletic, though there is still uncertainty. For case, the Excavata are probably not monophyletic and the chromalveolates are probably just monophyletic if the haptophytes and cryptomonads are excluded.[44]

In 2015 a Higher Level Classification of all Living Organisms was arrived at past consensus with many authors including Condescending-Smith. This classification proposes 2 superkingdoms and seven kingdoms. The superkingdoms are those of Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes. The Prokaryotes include two kingdoms of Bacteria and Archaea; the Eukaryotes include 5 kingdoms of Protozoa, Chromista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. The scheme retains xiv taxonomic ranks. Eukaryotic unicellular organisms are referred to as protists.[45]

Metabolism [edit]

Diet can vary according to the blazon of protist. Most eukaryotic algae are autotrophic, but the pigments were lost in some groups.[ vague ] Other protists are heterotrophic, and may present phagotrophy, osmotrophy, saprotrophy or parasitism. Some are mixotrophic. Some protists that do not take / lost chloroplasts/mitochondria have entered into endosymbiontic relationship with other bacteria/algae to replace the missing functionality. For example, Paramecium bursaria and Paulinella have captured a light-green alga (Zoochlorella) and a cyanobacterium respectively that deed as replacements for chloroplast. Meanwhile, a protist, Mixotricha paradoxa that has lost its mitochondria uses endosymbiontic bacteria equally mitochondria and ectosymbiontic hair-similar bacteria (Treponema spirochetes) for locomotion.

Many protists are flagellate, for example, and filter feeding can take identify where flagellates find prey. Other protists tin engulf bacteria and other food particles, by extending their jail cell membrane around them to course a food vacuole and digesting them internally in a procedure termed phagocytosis.

Nutritional types in protist metabolism
Nutritional blazon Source of energy Source of carbon Examples
 Photoautotrophs  Sunlight  Organic compounds or carbon fixation  Near algae
 Chemoheterotrophs  Organic compounds  Organic compounds  Apicomplexa, Trypanosomes or Amoebae

For virtually of import cellular structures and functions of animal and plants, it tin can be found a heritage among protists.[46]

Reproduction [edit]

Some protists reproduce sexually using gametes, while others reproduce asexually past binary fission.

Some species, for case Plasmodium falciparum, have extremely complex life cycles that involve multiple forms of the organism, some of which reproduce sexually and others asexually.[47] Still, information technology is unclear how oft sexual reproduction causes genetic exchange betwixt different strains of Plasmodium in nature and nearly populations of parasitic protists may be clonal lines that rarely exchange genes with other members of their species.[48]

Eukaryotes emerged in evolution more than 1.5 billion years agone.[49] The earliest eukaryotes were likely protists. Although sexual reproduction is widespread amidst extant eukaryotes, it seemed unlikely until recently, that sex could be a primordial and fundamental feature of eukaryotes. A principal reason for this view was that sexual activity appeared to be defective in certain pathogenic protists whose ancestors branched off early on from the eukaryotic family tree. Withal, several of these protists are now known to exist capable of, or to recently have had the capability for, meiosis and hence sexual reproduction. For example, the common intestinal parasite Giardia lamblia was in one case considered to exist a descendant of a protist lineage that predated the emergence of meiosis and sexual activity. Withal, Chiliad. lamblia was recently found to have a core ready of genes that function in meiosis and that are widely present among sexual eukaryotes.[l] These results suggested that Thou. lamblia is capable of meiosis and thus sexual reproduction. Furthermore, straight testify for meiotic recombination, indicative of sexual practice, was also found in Yard. lamblia.[51]

The pathogenic parasitic protists of the genus Leishmania have been shown to be capable of a sexual cycle in the invertebrate vector, likened to the meiosis undertaken in the trypanosomes.[52]

Trichomonas vaginalis, a parasitic protist, is not known to undergo meiosis, but when Malik et al.[53] tested for 29 genes that function in meiosis, they institute 27 to exist nowadays, including 8 of 9 genes specific to meiosis in model eukaryotes. These findings suggest that T. vaginalis may be capable of meiosis. Since 21 of the 29 meiotic genes were likewise present in Thousand. lamblia, it appears that nearly of these meiotic genes were likely nowadays in a common ancestor of T. vaginalis and Grand. lamblia. These ii species are descendants of protist lineages that are highly divergent amid eukaryotes, leading Malik et al.[53] to advise that these meiotic genes were likely nowadays in a common ancestor of all eukaryotes.

Based on a phylogenetic analysis, Dacks and Roger proposed that facultative sex was nowadays in the mutual antecedent of all eukaryotes.[54]

This view was further supported by a written report of amoebae by Lahr et al.[55] Amoeba have mostly been regarded equally asexual protists. However, these authors depict show that most amoeboid lineages are aforetime sexual, and that the bulk of asexual groups likely arose recently and independently. Early on researchers (eastward.yard., Calkins) have interpreted phenomena related to chromidia (chromatin granules gratis in the cytoplasm) in amoeboid organisms as sexual reproduction.[56]

Protists generally reproduce asexually under favorable environmental conditions, just tend to reproduce sexually nether stressful weather, such as starvation or estrus shock.[57] Oxidative stress, which is associated with the production of reactive oxygen species leading to DNA impairment, likewise appears to be an important factor in the induction of sex in protists.[57]

Some unremarkably establish protist pathogens such as Toxoplasma gondii are capable of infecting and undergoing asexual reproduction in a broad multifariousness of animals – which deed as secondary or intermediate host – only can undergo sexual reproduction only in the primary or definitive host (for example: felids such equally domestic cats in this example).[58] [59] [sixty]

Ecology [edit]

Biomass by life form.jpg

Complimentary-living protists occupy virtually any environment that contains liquid water. Many protists, such every bit algae, are photosynthetic and are vital main producers in ecosystems, particularly in the ocean as part of the plankton. Protists make up a large portion of the biomass in both marine and terrestrial environments.[61]

Other protists include pathogenic species, such equally the kinetoplastid Trypanosoma brucei, which causes sleeping sickness, and species of the apicomplexan Plasmodium, which crusade malaria.

Parasitism: function every bit pathogens [edit]

Some protists are significant parasites of animals (e.g.; five species of the parasitic genus Plasmodium cause malaria in humans and many others cause like diseases in other vertebrates), plants[62] [63] (the oomycete Phytophthora infestans causes late blight in potatoes)[64] or fifty-fifty of other protists.[65] [66] Protist pathogens share many metabolic pathways with their eukaryotic hosts. This makes therapeutic target evolution extremely difficult – a drug that harms a protist parasite is also probable to harm its animal/plant host. A more thorough understanding of protist biology may let these diseases to be treated more efficiently. For example, the apicoplast (a nonphotosynthetic chloroplast simply essential to deport out of import functions other than photosynthesis) present in apicomplexans provides an bonny target for treating diseases caused by dangerous pathogens such as plasmodium.

Recent papers have proposed the utilize of viruses to care for infections caused past protozoa.[67] [68]

Researchers from the Agricultural Research Service are taking advantage of protists as pathogens to command ruby imported burn down ant (Solenopsis invicta) populations in Argentina. Spore-producing protists such as Kneallhazia solenopsae (recognized as a sister clade or the closest relative to the fungus kingdom now)[69] can reduce cherry fire ant populations by 53–100%.[70] Researchers take also been able to infect phorid fly parasitoids of the ant with the protist without harming the flies. This turns the flies into a vector that tin spread the pathogenic protist betwixt red burn pismire colonies.[71]

Fossil record [edit]

Many protists have neither hard parts nor resistant spores, and their fossils are extremely rare or unknown. Examples of such groups include the apicomplexans,[72] most ciliates,[73] some green algae (the Klebsormidiales),[74] choanoflagellates,[75] oomycetes,[76] brownish algae,[77] yellow-greenish algae,[78] Excavata (eastward.k., euglenids).[79] Some of these have been found preserved in bister (fossilized tree resin) or under unusual conditions (e.g., Paleoleishmania, a kinetoplastid).

Others are relatively mutual in the fossil tape,[80] as the diatoms,[81] golden algae,[82] haptophytes (coccoliths),[83] silicoflagellates, tintinnids (ciliates), dinoflagellates,[84] greenish algae,[85] red algae,[86] heliozoans, radiolarians,[87] foraminiferans,[88] ebriids and testate amoebae (euglyphids, arcellaceans).[89] Some are even used as paleoecological indicators to reconstruct ancient environments.

More probable eukaryote fossils begin to announced at about 1.viii billion years ago, the acritarchs, spherical fossils of likely algal protists.[xc] Another possible representative of early fossil eukaryotes are the Gabonionta.

Meet besides [edit]

  • Evolution of sexual reproduction
  • Marine protists
  • Protist locomotion
  • Protistology

Footnotes [edit]

  1. ^ a b The offset eukaryotes were "neither plants, animals, nor fungi", hence as defined, the category protist would include the last eukaryotic mutual ancestor.
  2. ^ Monera somewhen became the two domains Bacteria and Archaea.[five]
  3. ^ In the original iv-kingdom model proposed in 1959, Protista included all unicellular microorganisms such as bacteria. Herbert Copeland proposed separate kingdoms, Mychota for prokaryotes and Protoctista for eukaryotes (including fungi) that were neither plants nor animals. Copeland'southward stardom between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells was somewhen critical in Whittaker proposing a final five-kingdom system, even though he resisted information technology for over a decade.[8] [9]

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Bibliography [edit]

General [edit]

  • Haeckel, E. Das Protistenreich. Leipzig, 1878.
  • Hausmann, K., North. Hulsmann, R. Radek. Protistology. Schweizerbart'sche Verlagsbuchshandlung, Stuttgart, 2003.
  • Margulis, L., J.O. Corliss, Thou. Melkonian, D.J. Chapman. Handbook of Protoctista. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Boston, 1990.
  • Margulis, L., K.5. Schwartz. 5 Kingdoms: An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth, third ed. New York: W.H. Freeman, 1998.
  • Margulis, 50., 50. Olendzenski, H.I. McKhann. Illustrated Glossary of the Protoctista, 1993.
  • Margulis, L., M.J. Chapman. Kingdoms and Domains: An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth. Amsterdam: Bookish Press/Elsevier, 2009.
  • Schaechter, Yard. Eukaryotic microbes. Amsterdam, Academic Press, 2012.

Physiology, ecology and paleontology [edit]

  • Foissner, W.; D.L. Hawksworth. Protist Diversity and Geographical Distribution. Dordrecht: Springer, 2009
  • Fontaneto, D. Biogeography of Microscopic Organisms. Is Everything Small Everywhere? Cambridge Academy Printing, Cambridge, 2011.
  • Levandowsky, M. Physiological Adaptations of Protists. In: Cell physiology sourcebook : essentials of membrane biophysics. Amsterdam; Boston: Elsevier/AP, 2012.
  • Moore, R. C., and other editors. Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology. Protista, function B (vol. i [ permanent dead link ] , Charophyta, vol. 2, Chrysomonadida, Coccolithophorida, Charophyta, Diatomacea & Pyrrhophyta), part C (Sarcodina, Chiefly "Thecamoebians" and Foraminiferida) and role D [ permanent dead link ] (Importantly Radiolaria and Tintinnina). Boulder, Colorado: Geological Society of America; & Lawrence, Kansas: Academy of Kansas Printing.

External links [edit]

  • Tree of Life: Eukaryotes
  • A java applet for exploring the new higher level classification of eukaryotes
  • Plankton Chronicles – Protists – Cells in the Bounding main – video
  • Holt, Jack R. and Carlos A. Iudica. (2013). Diverseness of Life. http://comenius.susqu.edu/biol/202/Taxa.htm. Final modified: 11/eighteen/thirteen.
  • Tsukii, Y. (1996). Protist Information Server (database of protist images). Laboratory of Biology, Hosei University.[ane]. Updated: March 22, 2016.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protist

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